Electronic Waste and Semiconductor-Related Residues as Secondary Sources of Gallium: Occurrence, Processing Routes, Separation Challenges, and Circular Supply Perspectives
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.66104/c6qq5978Palabras clave:
Gallium; electronic waste; semiconductor residues; LEDs; GaAs; GaN; CIGS; hydrometallurgy; selective separation; circular supply chains.Resumen
Gallium is essential to GaAs- and GaN-based semiconductors used in LEDs, 5G devices, power electronics, and advanced photovoltaics, yet its primary supply remains structurally constrained because it is obtained mainly as a by-product of aluminum and zinc production. This critical review examines electronic waste, semiconductor-related residues, and selected industrial by-products as secondary gallium sources, with emphasis on concentration ranges, phase occurrence, leaching behavior, separation selectivity, and process integration. The review compares LED waste, GaAs/GaN scraps, CIGS photovoltaic waste, Bayer-related liquors, coal fly ash, zinc residues, and specialized process wastes. Hydrometallurgy remains the dominant route, but the key challenge is usually not dissolution itself; it is the selective separation of gallium from aluminum, iron, zinc, vanadium, and matrix-dependent impurities. The article identifies the strongest recovery opportunities in concentrated semiconductor and process wastes, while mixed e-waste remains limited by dilution, heterogeneity, and preprocessing costs. Emerging routes based on ionic liquids, membranes, biodismantling, and bioleaching improve selectivity in laboratory studies, but their scalability remains limited. The main research gaps are incomplete flowsheet integration, scarce techno-economic validation, and limited industrial evidence.
Descargas
Referencias
1. Annoni, R., Lange, L. C., Amaral, M. C. S., Silva, A. M., Assunção, M. C., Franco, M. B., & de Souza, W. (2020). Light emitting diode waste: Potential of metals concentration and acid reuse via the integration of leaching and membrane processes. Journal of Cleaner Production, 246, 119057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119057. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119057
2. Asadian, H., & Ahmadi, A. (2020). The extraction of gallium from chloride solutions by emulsion liquid membrane: Optimization through response surface methodology. Minerals Engineering, 148, 106207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2020.106207. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2020.106207
3. Babaei, A., & Nasr Esfahani, A. (2024). A review of photovoltaic waste management from a sustainable perspective. Electricity, 5(4), 734–750. https://doi.org/10.3390/electricity5040036. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/electricity5040036
4. Badran, G., & Lazarov, V. K. (2025). From waste to resource: Exploring the current challenges and future directions of photovoltaic solar cell recycling. Solar, 5(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010004
5. Bai, Y., Su, J., Wang, F., Cui, H., et al. (2025). Harnessing synthetic biology for sustainable recovery of critical metal materials from electronic waste. Advanced Functional Materials, 35(49), Article 202509900. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202509900 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202509900
6. Benderly-Kremen, E., Daehn, K. & Allanore, A. Gallium and Indium Selective Sulfidation and Vapor Phase Transport from e-Waste Feedstocks. JOM 77, 7415–7434 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-025-07623-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-025-07623-5
7. Bukauskaitė, A., Jiang, J. Y., & Ekins-Daukes, N. J. (2024, December 3–5). Availability analysis of gallium (Ga) and indium (In) to determine their sufficiency in supporting multi-GW scale manufacturing of III–V solar cells. In Proceedings of the Solar Research Conference 2024 (Sydney, Australia).
8. Cenci, M. P., Dal Berto, F. C., Castillo, B. W., et al. (2022). Precious and critical metals from wasted LED lamps: Characterization and evaluation. Environmental Technology. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2020.1856939 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2020.1856939
9. Chen, W.-S., Tien, K.-W., Wang, L.-P., Lee, C.-H., & Chung, Y.-F. (2020a). Recovery of gallium from simulated GaAs waste etching solutions by solvent extraction. Sustainability, 12(5), 1765. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12051765 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su12051765
10. Chen, W.-S., Chung, Y.-F., & Tien, K.-W. (2020). Recovery of gallium and indium from waste light emitting diodes. Journal of the Korean Institute of Resources Recycling, 29(1), 81–88. https://doi.org/10.7844/kirr.2020.29.1.81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7844/kirr.2020.29.1.81
11. de Oliveira, R. P., Benvenuti, J., & Espinosa, D. C. R. (2021). A review of the current progress in recycling technologies for gallium and rare earth elements from light-emitting diodes. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 145, 111090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111090. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111090
12. Dhiman, S., & Gupta, B. (2025). Ionic liquid assisted extraction of gallium and recovery of valuable metals from spent LED lights. Sustainable Chemistry for Climate Action, 9, 100147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scca.2025.100147 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scca.2025.100147
13. Erkmen, A. N., Ulber, R., Jüstel, T., & Altendorfner, M. (2025). Fundamental insights into gallium leaching for sustainable electronic waste recovery. Scientific Reports, 15, 43023. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-30908-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-30908-3
14. Evans, M., Brooks, C., & Battelle. (2023). Critical material recovery from e-waste. United States Energy Association. https://usea.org/sites/default/files/USEA633-2023-004-01_CMfromEwaste_FINAL_REPORT.pdf.
15. Flerus, B., & Friedrich, B. (2020). Recovery of gallium from smartphones—Part II: Oxidative alkaline pressure leaching of gallium from pyrolysis residue. Metals, 10, 1529. https://doi.org/10.3390/met10111529 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/met10121565
16. Gahlot, R., Mir, S., & Dhawan, N. (2022). Recycling of discarded photovoltaic solar modules for metal recovery: A review and outlook for the future. Energy & Fuels. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.2c02847 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.2c02847
17. Gajec, M., Król, A., Holewa-Rataj, J., Kukulska-Zając, E., & Kuchta, T. (2025). Electrolytic recovery of indium from copper indium gallium selenide photovoltaic panels: Preliminary investigation of process parameters. Recycling, 10(3), 86. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling10030086. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling10030086
18. Hadj, G. (2025). An AI-based method for sorting and separation of semiconductor waste: An environmentally friendly method for implementing a circular economy in the semiconductor industry. The Eurasia Proceedings of Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics. https://doi.org/10.55549/epstem.1228. DOI: https://doi.org/10.55549/epstem.1228
19. Hartzell, W., Moats, M. Extraction of Critical Electronic Materials from Steelmaking Wastes. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration 40, 1445–1453 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-023-00819-w. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-023-00819-w
20. Hasan, M.M., Rhamdhani, M.A. & Brooks, G.A. Thermodynamics of Gallium (Ga) at Black Copper Smelting Conditions Relevant to E-Waste Processing. Metall Mater Trans B 53, 3136–3146 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11663-022-02593-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11663-022-02593-4
21. Hu, D., Ma, B., Li, X., Lv, Y., Chen, Y., & Wang, C. (2022). Innovative and sustainable separation and recovery of valuable metals in spent CIGS materials. Journal of Cleaner Production, 350, 131426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131426. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131426
22. Huang, Y., Wang, M., Liu, B., Su, S., Sun, H., Yang, S., & Han, G. (2024a). The extraction and separation of scarce critical metals: A review of gallium, indium and germanium extraction and separation from solid wastes. Separations, 11(6), 173. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations11060173 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/separations11040091
23. Huang, Y.-F., Chen, Y., Chiueh, P.-T., & Lo, S.-L. (2024b). Metal recovery from copper indium gallium selenide solar cells by using microwave pyrolysis, thermal oxidation and thermal chlorination. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 190, 226–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.07.04. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.07.042
24. Huang, Z., Tian, Q., Yue, X., Guo, X., Fan, H., & Xu, Z. (2025). Sustainable recovery of gallium from gallium arsenide waste via integrated hydrometallurgical processes. Separation and Purification Technology, 379, 134856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2025.134856. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2025.134856
25. Illés, I. B., & Kékesi, T. (2023a). A comprehensive aqueous processing of waste LED light bulbs to recover valuable metals and compounds. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 35, e00572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2023.e00572. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2023.e00572
26. Illés, I. B., & Kékesi, T. (2023b). The production of high-purity gallium from waste LEDs by combining sulfuric acid digestion, cation-exchange, and electrowinning. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 11(5), 110391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.110391 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.110391
27. Jaiswal, M., & Srivastava, S. (2024). A review on sustainable approach of bioleaching of precious metals from electronic wastes. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 14, 100435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2024.100435 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2024.100435
28. Jia, H., Zhou, Y., Wang, A., Wang, G., Li, T., Wang, C., Xing, W., Ma, Z., & Li, P. (2022). Evolution of the anthropogenic gallium cycle in China from 2005 to 2020. Frontiers in Energy Research, 10, 944617. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2022.944617. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2022.944617
29. Ji, W., Xie, K., Yan, S., Huang, H., & Chen, H. (2020). A new method of recycling gallium from yellow phosphorus flue dust by vacuum thermal reduction process. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 400, 123234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123234
30. Kluczka, J. (2024). A review on the recovery and separation of gallium and indium from waste. Resources, 13(3), 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13030035 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13030035
31. Li, J., Wang, L., Zhang, B., Song, D., & Yu, J. (2025). Mechanochemical extraction of gallium from chemically akin metal mixtures via an atomic-scale low-entropy-increasing strategy. Joule, 10(1), Article 102234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2025.102234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2025.102234
32. Li, M., Widijatmoko, S. D., Wang, Z., & Hall, P. (2023a). A methodology to liberate critical metals in waste solar panel. Applied Energy, 337, 120900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.120900. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.120900
33. Li, X., Ma, B., Hu, D., Zhao, Q., Chen, Y., & Wang, C. (2022). Efficient separation and purification of indium and gallium in spent copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS). Journal of Cleaner Production, 339, 130658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130658. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130658
34. Li, X., Ma, B., Wang, C. et al. Recycling and recovery of spent copper—indium—gallium—diselenide (CIGS) solar cells: A review. Int J Miner Metall Mater 30, 989–1002 (2023b). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-022-2552-y. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-022-2552-y
35. Li, Y., Chen, X., Guo, B., Dai, Z., Kong, Z., Li, F., & Ou, J. (2024). Synthesis of polyacrylate-divinylbenzene hydroxamic resins and its gallium adsorption performance in sulfuric acid solution. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 60, 105191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2024.105191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2024.105191
36. Lin, M., Wu, Y., Qin, B., Cao, W., Liu, J., Xu, Z., & Ruan, J. (2022). Response to the upcoming emerging waste: Necessity and feasibility analysis of photovoltaic waste recovery in China. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(23), 17396–17409. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c06956. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c06956
37. Liu, F.-W., Cheng, T.-M., Chen, Y.-J., Yueh, K.-C., Tang, S.-Y., Wang, K., Wu, C.-L., Tsai, H.-S., Yu, Y.-J., Lai, C.-H., Chen, W.-S., & Chueh, Y.-L. (2022). High-yield recycling and recovery of copper, indium, and gallium from waste copper indium gallium selenide thin-film solar panels. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 241, 111691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2022.111691. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2022.111691
38. Liu, Y., Xin, Z., Tian, L., Villa-Gomez, D., Wang, W., & Cao, Y. (2024a). Fabrication of peptide-encapsulated sodium alginate hydrogel for selective gallium adsorption. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 263(Part 2), 130436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.130436. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.130436
39. Liu, Z., Tian, Q., Guo, X., Li, D., Zou, M., & Xu, Z. (2024b). Efficient separation and recovery of gallium from GaAs scraps by alkaline oxidative leaching, cooling crystallization and cyclone electrowinning. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 185, 467–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.03.039. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.03.039
40. Luo, H., Huang, TY., Wu, X. et al. Life cycle assessment for primary gallium production at industrial-scale. Int J Life Cycle Assess 30, 1545–1559 (2025a). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-025-02492-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-025-02492-1
41. Luo, J., Wu, Y., Wang, S., Zhu, R., Chen, Y., Yang, X., Luo, G., Tang, X., & Zhang, L. (2025b). Selective adsorption of Ga(III) via crosslinked pyrogallol resin: Performance and mechanism. Applied Surface Science, 710, 163938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2025.163938. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2025.163938
42. Lv, Z., Ma, M., Huang, Y., Wang, W., Li, G., Si, L., Fan, G., Cao, Y., Li, P., & Teng, D. (2025). Hydroxamic acid-functionalized chitosan hydrogel beads for sustainable and continuous gallium recovery. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 322(Part 2), 146869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.146869. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.146869
43. Maarefvand, M., Sheibani, S., & Rashchi, F. (2020). Recovery of gallium from waste LEDs by oxidation and subsequent leaching. Hydrometallurgy, 191, 105230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2019.105230. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2019.105230
44. Mir, S., Vaishampayan, A. & Dhawan, N. A Review on Recycling of End-of-Life Light-Emitting Diodes for Metal Recovery. JOM 74, 599–611 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-021-05043-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-021-05043-9
45. Monneron-Enaud, B., Wiche, O., & Schlömann, M. (2020). Biodismantling, a novel application of bioleaching in recycling of electronic wastes. Recycling, 5(3), 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling5030022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling5030022
46. Mufti, N., Amrillah, T., Taufiq, A., Sunaryono, Aripriharta, Diantoro, M., Zulhadjri, & Nur, H. (2020). Review of CIGS-based solar cells manufacturing by structural engineering. Solar Energy, 207, 1146–1157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.07.065 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.07.065
47. Mustafa, L., Usman, M., Ali, S., Ali, A., & Naveed, A. (2025). Recycling technologies for extracting gallium from light-emitting diodes. Photonics, 12(8), 808. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12080808. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12080808
48. Nain, P., & Kumar, A. (2020). Metal dissolution from end-of-life solar photovoltaics in real landfill leachate versus synthetic solutions: One-year study. Waste Management, 114, 351–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.004
49. Nain, P., & Kumar, A. (2021). Understanding metal dissolution from solar photovoltaics in MSW leachate under standard waste characterization conditions for informing end-of-life photovoltaic waste management. Waste Management, 123, 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2021.01.013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2021.01.013
50. Ndalloka, Z. N., Nair, H. V., Alpert, S., & Schmid, C. (2024). Solar photovoltaic recycling strategies. Solar Energy, 270, 112379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2024.112379 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2024.112379
51. Nikulski, J. S., Ritthoff, M., & von Gries, N. (2021). The potential and limitations of critical raw material recycling: The case of LED lamps. Resources, 10(4), 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10040037. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10040037
52. Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., et al. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
53. Pan, Q., Zhu, Z., Lin, X. et al. Adsorption–Precipitation Method to Recover Gallium, Aluminum and Alkali from the Gallium Electrolyte in Zinc Refinery Plant. Trans Indian Inst Met 78, 88 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-025-03559-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-025-03559-1
54. Patel, U. A. (2025). Gallium and rare-earth elements: A critical review of their roles, recovery, and sustainability challenges (Master’s thesis, Laurentian University). Laurentian University Library & Archives. https://laurentian.scholaris.ca/handle/10219/4413.
55. Pereira, A. C. (2026). Gallium recovery from ores and secondary resources (2020–2025): A critical review of process chemistry, selectivity and flowsheets. Revista Científica Multidisciplinar RECIMA21. https://doi.org/10.47820/recima21.v7i3.7479 DOI: https://doi.org/10.47820/recima21.v7i3.7479
56. Pourhossein, F., Mousavi, S. M., & Beolchini, F. (2022). Innovative bio-acid leaching method for high recovery of critical metals from end-of-life light emitting diodes. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 182, 106306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106306. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106306
57. Qi, M., Zhu, M., Chen, H., Liu, Y., Lin, Z., Jiang, Z., Wu, J., & He, C. (2026). Separation of gallium from acid leachates of zinc smelting slag by tartaric acid coordinated complexation and anion-exchange. Hydrometallurgy, 239, 106581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2025.106581. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2025.106581
58. Qin, R., Chen, J., Sun, S., Li, H., Du, Z., Wen, Q., et al. (2025). Efficient recovery of gallium and iron from the acid leaching solution of NdFeB waste based on solvent extraction. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssusresmgt.5c00248 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acssusresmgt.5c00248
59. Qin, Z., Jin, X., Yang, Z., Xin, Y., & Liu, W. (2024). The effective separation of gallium, vanadium, and aluminum from a simulated Bayer solution by resin exchange. Materials, 17(16), 4109. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17164109. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17164109
60. Qu, L., Li, L., Wu, Y. et al. Study on the Adsorption Mechanism and Desorption Process of Gallium and Vanadium in Practical Bayer Liquor by Amidoxime Porous Resin. JOM 77, 3457–3471 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-025-07205-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-025-07205-5
61. Raj, P., Patel, M., & Karamalidis, A. K. (2023). Chemically modified polymeric resins with catechol derivatives for adsorption, separation and recovery of gallium from acidic solutions. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 11(5), 110790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.110790. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.110790
62. Ravilla, A., Gullickson, E., Tomes, A., & Celik, I. (2024). Economic and environmental sustainability of copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) solar panels recycling. Science of the Total Environment, 951, 175670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175670. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175670
63. Rebello, R. Z., Lima, M. T. W. D. C., Yamane, L. H., & Siman, R. R. (2020). Characterization of end-of-life LED lamps for the recovery of precious metals and rare earth elements. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 153, 104557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104557. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104557
64. Robla, J. I., Alonso, M., & Alguacil, F. J. (2024). Recovery of lesser-known strategic metals: The gallium and germanium cases. Processes, 12(11), 2545. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112545. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112545
65. Rudnik, E. (2024). Review on gallium in coal and coal waste materials: Exploring strategies for hydrometallurgical metal recovery. Molecules, 29(24), 5919. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29245919. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29245919
66. Song, G., Lu, Y., Liu, B., Duan, H., Feng, H., & Liu, G. (2023). Photovoltaic panel waste assessment and embodied material flows in China, 2000–2050. Journal of Environmental Management, 338, 117675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117675. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117675
67. Swain, B., Lee, DH., Lee, C.G. et al. Detoxification of GaAs Bearing Waste LED and Recovery of Metal Values Through Understanding the Thermodynamics and Chemistry: A Perspective. Waste Biomass Valor 12, 2769–2778 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-020-01196-x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-020-01196-x
68. Sverdrup, H.U., Haraldsson, H.V. Gallium: Assessing the Long-Term Future Extraction, Supply, Recycling, and Price of Using WORLD7, in Relation to Future Technology Visions in the European Union. Biophys Econ Sust 10, 4 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41247-025-00125-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41247-025-00125-7
69. Teng, D., Wu, J., Ma, Q., Wang, W., Zhou, G., Fan, G., Cao, Y., & Li, P. (2025). Advances in the recovery of critical rare dispersed metals (gallium, germanium, indium) from urban mineral resources. ACS Omega, 10(1), 76–92. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.4c08689. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.4c08689
70. Theocharis, M., Tsakiridis, P. E., Kousi, P., Hatzikioseyian, A., Zarkadas, I., Remoundaki, E., & Lyberatos, G. (2021). Hydrometallurgical treatment for the extraction and separation of indium and gallium from end-of-life CIGS photovoltaic panels. Materials Proceedings, 5(1), 51. https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2021005051. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2021005051
71. Wang, J., Feng, Y., & He, Y. (2024a). Advancements in recycling technologies for waste CIGS photovoltaic modules. Nano Energy, 128, 109847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109847. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109847
72. Wang, S., Lv, G., & Zhang, T. (2024b). Preparation of a gallium-imprinted resin-capacitive deionization electrode and study of its gallium adsorption performance. New Journal of Chemistry, 48, 17878–17885. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4NJ03271C. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D4NJ03271C
73. Wang, S., Lv, G., & Zhang, T. (2025a). Selective gallium adsorption and recovery from Bayer mother liquor using a chitosan-based gallium-imprinted resin. New Journal of Chemistry, 49, 5117–5125. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4NJ04894F. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D4NJ04894F
74. Wang, W., Xu, X., Li, J., Liu, T., Wang, H., & Wang, Y. (2025b). Green and facile modification of mesoporous activated carbon for selective indium and gallium recovery from waste photovoltaic modules. Green Chemistry, 27, 485–497. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4GC04204B. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D4GC04204B
75. Yandem, G., & Jabłońska-Czapla, M. (2024). Review of indium, gallium, and germanium as emerging contaminants: Occurrence, speciation and evaluation of the potential environmental impact. Archives of Environmental Protection. https://doi.org/10.24425/aep.2024.151688 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24425/aep.2024.151688
76. Yandem, G., Grygoyć, K. & Jabłońska-Czapla, M. Impact of photovoltaics on soil and water by metal(loid)s including technology critical elements: preliminary study. Environ Geochem Health 47, 389 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-025-02686-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-025-02686-4
77. Yang, Y., Zheng, X., Tao, T., Rao, F., Gao, W., Huang, Z., Leng, G., Min, X., Chen, B., & Sun, Z. (2023). A sustainable process for selective recovery of metals from gallium-bearing waste generated from LED industry. Waste Management, 167, 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2023.05.018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2023.05.018
78. Zhan, L., Wang, Z., Zhang, Y., & Xu, Z. (2020a). Recycling of metals (Ga, In, As and Ag) from waste light-emitting diodes in sub/supercritical ethanol. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 155, 104695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104695. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104695
79. Zhan, L., Zhang, Y., Ahmad, Z., & Xu, Z. (2020b). Novel recycle technology for recovering gallium arsenide from scraped integrated circuits. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 8(7), 2874–2882. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b07006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b07006
80. Zhang, X., Li, S., Liao, X., Guo, Q., Zheng, Y., Leng, Z., Zheng, P., Huang, Y., Liu, Z., & Sun, S. (2025). Enhancement of gallium recovery from waste LEDs via biogenic lixiviants produced by mixed microbial community. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 13(6), 120403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.120403. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.120403
81. Zhang, Y., Zhan, L., & Xu, Z. (2021). Recycling Ag, As, Ga of waste light-emitting diodes via subcritical water treatment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 408, 124409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124409. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124409
82. Zhao, Z., Cui, L., Guo, Y., Gao, J., Li, H., & Cheng, F. (2021). A stepwise separation process for selective recovery of gallium from hydrochloric acid leach liquor of coal fly ash. Separation and Purification Technology, 265, 118455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2021.118455. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2021.118455
83. Zheng, K., Benedetti, M. F., & van Hullebusch, E. D. (2023). Recovery technologies for indium, gallium, and germanium from end-of-life products (electronic waste) – A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 347, 119043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119043. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119043
84. Zheng, K., Benedetti, M. F., Jain, R., Pollmann, K., & van Hullebusch, E. D. (2024). Recovery of gallium (and indium) from spent LEDs: Strong acids leaching versus selective leaching by siderophore desferrioxamine E. Separation and Purification Technology, 338, 126566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.126566. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.126566
85. Zheng, Q., He, C., Meng, J., Fujita, T., Zheng, C., et al. (2021). Behaviors of adsorption and elution on amidoxime resin for gallium, vanadium, and aluminium ions in alkaline aqueous solution. Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange. https://doi.org/10.1080/07366299.2020.1847783 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07366299.2020.1847783
86. Zhou, H., Ye, Y., Tan, Y., Zhu, K., Liu, X., Tian, H., Guo, Q., Wang, L., Zhao, S., & Liu, Y. (2022). Supported liquid membranes based on bifunctional ionic liquids for selective recovery of gallium. Membranes, 12(4), 376. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12040376. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12040376
87. Zhu, P., Ma, Y., Wang, Y. et al. Separation and recovery of materials from the waste light emitting diode (LED) modules by solvent method. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 22, 1184–1195 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-020-01012-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-020-01012-7
88. Zhu, X., Guo, Y., & Zheng, B. (2024). Graphene oxide covalently functionalized with 5-methyl-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-amine for pH-sensitive Ga³⁺ recovery in aqueous solutions. Molecules, 29(16), 3768. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163768. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163768
89. Zuo, L., Huang, Z., Song, H., Achari, G., & He, P. (2026). Global and regional gallium recycling potential and opportunities: Based on historical material flow analysis. Sustainability, 18(1), 255. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18010255. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su18010255
Descargas
Publicado
Número
Sección
Licencia
Derechos de autor 2026 Antonio Clareti Pereira
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.
Authors who publish in this journal agree to the following terms:
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal the right of first publication, with the work simultaneously licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits the sharing of the work with proper acknowledgment of authorship and initial publication in this journal;
Authors are authorized to enter into separate, additional agreements for the non-exclusive distribution of the version of the work published in this journal (e.g., posting in an institutional repository or publishing it as a book chapter), provided that authorship and initial publication in this journal are properly acknowledged, and that the work is adapted to the template of the respective repository;
Authors are permitted and encouraged to post and distribute their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their personal websites) at any point before or during the editorial process, as this may lead to productive exchanges and increase the impact and citation of the published work (see The Effect of Open Access);
Authors are responsible for correctly providing their personal information, including name, keywords, abstracts, and other relevant data, thereby defining how they wish to be cited. The journal’s editorial board is not responsible for any errors or inconsistencies in these records.
PRIVACY POLICY
The names and email addresses provided to this journal will be used exclusively for the purposes of this publication and will not be made available for any other purpose or to third parties.
Note: All content of the work is the sole responsibility of the author and the advisor.
